BACKGROUND A previous phylogeographic study revealed two Aedes aegypti African-related mitochondrial lineages distributed in Colombian’s cities with different eco-epidemiologic characteristics with regard to dengue virus (DENV). It has been proposed these lineages might indicate independent invasion sources. OBJECTIVES Assessing to Colombian population structure and to support evidence of its probable source origin. METHODS We analysed a total of 267 individuals from cities of Bello, Riohacha and Villavicencio, which 241 were related to the West and East African mitochondrial lineages (termed here as WAL and EAL, respectively). Eight polymorphic microsatellite loci were analysed aiming population structure. FINDINGS Results indicate substantial gene flow among distant and low-connected cities composing a panmictic population with incipient local differentiation of Ae. aegypti is placed in Colombia. Likewise, genetic evidence indicates no significant differences among individuals related to WAL and EAL is placed. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Minimal genetic differentiation in low-connected Ae. aegypti populations of Colombia, and lack concordance between mitochondrial and nuclear genealogies suggest that Colombian Ae. aegypti shared a common demographic history. Under this scenario, we suggest current Ae. aegypti population structure reflects a single origin instead of contemporary migration, which founding populations have a single source from a mitochondrial polymorphic African ancient.

Resumen El dengue es la arbovirosis más importante en salud pública. Es transmitido por la picadura de mosquitos hembras de Aedes spp., que se infectan de manera horizontal al ingerir sangre de una persona virémica. Sin embargo, numerosos estudios han identificado la transmisión vertical como otro mecanismo de infección vectorial. Con el propósito de analizar la ocurrencia de transmisión vertical del virus dengue por mosquitos Aedes, se recolectaron mosquitos adultos en viviendas y otras locaciones durante los levantamientos de índices entomológicos realizados por la Secretaría de Salud de Medellín en los años 2016 (epidémico) y 2017 (endémico). Los ejemplares se identificaron y conformaron pools para la detección viral por RT-PCR. En total se recolectaron 6.708 mosquitos, donde, el 96 % y 4 % correspondieron a Ae. aegypti y Ae. albopictus, respectivamente. De los 2.211 pools conformados, 294 resultaron positivos para virus dengue, y 50 de estos correspondieron exclusivamente a machos de Aedes spp. Tanto para el año epidémico como endémico, se registró transmisión vertical, pero fue más frecuente en el 2016. Se observó transmisión vertical en todos los sectores de la ciudad, sin un patrón definido. La presencia de machos Aedes spp. infectados naturalmente con virus dengue sugiere que la transmisión vertical es un evento más frecuente de lo que se consideraba, y podría comprender una mayor relevancia epidemiológica. Estudios adicionales para verificar la capacidad de infección del virus detectado en mosquitos machos y precisar el papel de la transmisión vertical en la incidencia de dengue se hacen necesarios.

Abstract Dengue is the world’s most important arbovirus. It is transmitted by the bite of females Aedes spp. mosquitoes, which normally become infected by biting a viraemic host. There are, however, numerous studies that have identified vertical transmission as a rare yet important mechanism of vector infection. This study was conducted in order to quantify the occurrence of vertical transmission of dengue virus in Aedes mosquitoes collected by the Secretary of Health in Medellin, Colombia in 2016 (epidemic year) and 2017 (endemic year). Specimens were identified to species and tested for dengue in pools by RT-PCR. A total of 6,708 mosquitoes were collected; 96 % were Ae. aegypti, and 4 % were Ae. Albopictus. 294 of 2,211 pools tested were positive for dengue virus, and 50 of the positive pools were exclusively male mosquitoes. For both epidemic and the endemic years, vertical transmission was detected, though it was more frequent in 2016. Vertical transmission was observed in mosquitoes collected from all sectors of the city, without a distinct spatial pattern. Our results suggest that vertical transmission is a more frequent event with greater epidemiological relevance than previously estimated. Additional studies are required to verify the infectivity of the virus detected in male mosquitoes and to specify the role of vertical transmission in the incidence of dengue virus

Resumen: La tripanosomiasis bovina es una enfermedad hemoparasitaria transmitida en Latinoamérica principalmente por moscas picadoras de la familia Tabanidae. El objetivo del estudio fue evaluar la infección por Trypanosoma vivax y Trypanosoma evansi en ganadería bovina especializada en producción de leche en una hacienda y sus potenciales vectores. Se realizó un estudio parasitológico y entomológico directo por técnicas de microscopia y reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) con dos marcadores moleculares para diferenciar especies de Trypanosoma en muestras de sangre de bovinos y moscas. La frecuencia de infección por Trypanosoma vivax y Trypanosoma evansi en bovinos fue de 3,6 y 0 %, respectivamente. La caracterización de vectores muestra a Haematobia irritans como la mosca más frecuente en la zona de estudio (97,1 %), seguida de Stomoxys calcitrans (2,8 %). No se identificaron tabánidos. Se encontró T. vivax y T. evansi en probóscide y toráx-abdomen de las moscas picadoras Haematobia irritans y Stomoxys calcitrans, lo que representa un comportamiento epizoótico atípico al que sucede en países de Suramérica. Por su alta densidad poblacional, se sugiere la mosca Haematobia irritans como el principal potencial vector.

Abstract: Bovine trypanosomiasis is a hemoparasitic disease transmitted in Latin America mainly by biting flies of the family Tabanidae. The study aimed to evaluate infection by Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma evansi in cattle specialized in milk production on a farm and their potential vectors. A direct parasitological and entomological study was performed using microscopy techniques and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with two molecular markers to differentiate Trypanosoma species in blood samples of cattle and flies. Infection frequency with Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma evansi in cattle was 3.6 and 0%, respectively. Characterization of vectors shows Haematobia irritans as the most frequent fly in the study area (97.1%), followed by Stomoxys calcitrans (2.8%). No horseflies were identified. T. vivax and T. evansi were found in proboscis and thorax-abdomen of biting flies Haematobia irritans and Stomoxys calcitrans, representing an epizootic behavior, atypical in South American countries. Due to its high population density, it is suggested that the Haematobia irritans fly is the main potential vector.

Resumo: A tripanossomíase bovina é uma doença causada por hemoparasitas e transmitida na América Latina principalmente por moscas picadoras da família Tabanidae. O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar a infecção por Trypanosoma vivax e Trypanosoma evansi em gado bovino especializada em produção de leite em uma fazenda e seus potenciais vectores. Se realizou um estudo parasitológico e entomológico direto por técnicas de microscopia e reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) com dois marcadores moleculares para diferenciar espécies de Typanosoma em amostras de sangue de bovinos e moscas. A frequência de infecção por Trypanosoma vivax e Trypanosoma evansi em bovinos foi de 3,6 e 0 %, respectivamente. A caracterização de vetores mostra a Haematobia irritans como a mosca mais frequente na zona de estudo (97,1 %), seguida de Stomoxys calcitrans (2,8 %). Não se identificaram tabanídeos. Se encontrou T. vivax e T. evansi em proboscídea e tórax-abdômen das moscas picadoras Haematobia irritans e Stomoxys calcitrans, o que representa um comportamento epizoótico atípico ao que sucede em países da América do Sul. Por sua alta densidade populacional, se sugere a mosca Haematobia irritans como o principal potencial vetor.

Introducción. La enfermedad de Chagas, causada por Trypanosoma cruzi, es uno de los problemas más graves de salud pública en el continente americano. El benzonidazol es uno de los dos medicamentos utilizados para tratar la enfermedad de Chagas. Sin embargo, la variación de la sensibilidad del parásito a este medicamento es una de las principales causas del fracaso del tratamiento. Objetivo. Evaluar la sensibilidad in vitro al benzonidazol de cepas colombianas de T. cruzi de diferentes orígenes y procedencia geográfica. Materiales y métodos. Treinta y tres cepas colombianas de T. cruzi aisladas de humanos, vectores y mamíferos, se analizaron in vitro mediante el micrométodo enzimático de MTT para determinar la concentración inhibitoria 50 (CI50) al benzonidazol. Se estudió la correlación entre la sensibilidad in vitro al medicamento y diferentes parámetros biológicos y eco-epidemiológicos. Resultados. El análisis de sensibilidad al medicamento indicó que el 36 % de las cepas eran sensibles, el 48 %, parcialmente resistentes y, el 16 %, resistentes al benzonidazol. Los análisis de correlación entre las CI50 con algunos parámetros biológicos y eco-epidemiológicos, mostraron diferencias en cuanto a la sensibilidad según el origen biológico y el área geográfica de procedencia de la cepa. Conclusiones. Existe una gran variabilidad en cuanto a la sensibilidad al benzonidazol de las cepas circulantes de T. cruzi en Colombia, lo cual sugiere la presencia de cepas naturalmente resistentes en el país.

Introduction. Chagas disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi is one of the most serious public health problems in the Americas. Benznidazole is one of two drugs used to treat Chagas´ disease. However, the variation in susceptibility of the parasite to this drug is one of the main causes of treatment failure. Objective. The in vitro susceptibility to benznidazole was assessed in Colombian strains of T. cruzi from several sources and geographical regions. Materials and methods. Thirty-three Colombian T. cruzi strains were isolated from humans, vectors and mammals. These were analyzed in vitro by the MTT enzymatic micromethod to determine the IC50 to benznidazole. Additionally, the in vitro susceptibility was correlated with several biological and ecoepidemiological parameters. Results. Thirty-six percent of the strains were considered to be sensitive, 48% partially resistant, and 16% were resistant. Correlations between the IC50 and several biological and eco-epidemiological parameters indicated that differences in susceptibility depended on the biological source and geographical origin of the strain. Conclusions. A high degree of variability exists in the susceptibility to benznidazole of T. cruzi strains in Colombia. The distribution data indicate the presence and circulation of naturally resistant strains.

Previous studies have reported genetic differences between wild-caught sylvatic, domestic and laboratory pop-ulations of several Triatominae species. The differences between sylvatic and laboratory colonies parallel are similar to the differences observed between sylvatic and domestic populations. Laboratory colonies are frequently used as references for field populations, but the consequences of founder events on the genetic makeup of laboratory or domestic populations are rarely quantified. Our goal was to quantify the genetic change in Rhodnius pallescens populations artificially submitted to founder effects via laboratory colonization. We compared the genetic makeup of two sylvatic populations and their laboratory descendants using a panel of 10 microsatellite markers. Both sylvatic populations were initially collected from palm trees, but the colonies differed in the number of founder insects and amount of time kept in the laboratory. We evaluated allelic polymorphism, differences between expected and observed heterozygosity, estimates of population differentiation (Fst) and inbreeding (Fis, Fit) and cluster analyses based on Nei's distances. We found a unique genetic structure for each sample population, with significant differentiation between the field insects and each of the laboratory generations. These analyses showed strong founder effects and showed that genetic drift had led to a genetic equilibrium over several generations of isolation. Our results suggest that laboratory colonies of R. pallescens have a different genetic structure than their wild relatives and similar processes likely affect other Triatominae laboratory stocks.

Rhodnius pallescens is the main vector of Trypanosoma cruzi in Panama and one of the most relevant secondary vectors in Colombia. Despite the importance of this species, there is limited knowledge about the genetic variability along its geographical distribution. In order to evaluate the degree of karyotype variability we analyzed the meiotic behavior and banding pattern of the chromosomes of 112 males of R. pallescens coming from different regions of Colombia and Panama. Using the C-banding technique we identified two chromosomal patterns or cytotypes characterized by differences in the amount, size and distribution of constitutive heterochromatic regions in the chromosome complement (2n = 20 autosomes plus XY in males). The individuals can be easily classified in each cytotype by the analysis of the chromosomes during first meiotic prophase. The frequencies of the cytotypes are variable according to the geographic origin of the populations. This chromosomal divergence together with morphological data supports the existence of three genetically different populations of R. pallescens and provides new information to understand the distribution dynamics of this species.